A summarization of volcanic geomorphologies
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摘要:
分析归纳所经历的火山地貌为3类:(1)死火山:山西大同桑干河平原低缓火山锥群体, NW与NE两系列交叉分布, 内陆平原断裂带的火山活动第四纪中期喷发剧烈, 至9万年前停止, 喷积碱性玄武岩与拉斑玄武岩。南京江宁、六合火山群, 海口金牛岭、石山与马鞍岭火山群属此类。(2)休眠火山:位于东非大裂谷中的乞力马扎罗山基博峰, 日本富士山, 海南儋县与北部湾涠洲岛, 火山锥与火山口地貌清晰, 时有含硫气体与水蒸气溢出。(3)活火山:日本鹿儿岛的樱岛火山, 3000年前爆发, 1955年以来经常喷发, 地震与山体轰鸣不断, 火山砂与粉尘降落, 掩埋了建筑与田野, 暴雨时泥石流成灾, 采用开沟引流防护。长白山天池时有喷发气体、灰渣与水蒸气; 台湾大屯火山源于北吕宋岛弧与亚欧大陆之碰撞, 安山岩岩浆沿断裂流溢, 至20万年前结束, 目前仍喷溢气体, 泥浆溢流堆积泥火山; 意大利维苏威火山, 于公元79年喷发, 熔岩流瞬间埋葬了庞贝古城, 仍有间歇性喷发; 1980年北美圣海伦斯火山爆发, 山崩地裂为峡谷与火山口, 喷溢物造成大面积废墟与生命死亡, 是“20世纪最大的火山爆发, 造成相当于百万年的自然环境蜕变”。太平洋夏威夷岛冒纳罗亚与基拉韦厄为热点源火山爆发, 熔岩流缓动毁田、林、民居, 板块继向NW向移动, 热点处火山喷溢为新岛, 渐发展为岛屿系列。大西洋洋中脊冰岛火山喷发活动形成冰、火两重组合造陆与新能源动力效应, 展示火山活动利、弊双面性。火山爆发具有分布于海陆交互作用带、洋中脊裂谷、不同板块间的交界地带及板块内岩浆聚积的热点处之规律。在地壳薄弱的断裂地带、地幔内岩浆上涌形成火山喷发, 自古至今火山爆发具有自陆向海迁移的特性。火山爆发既形成突发式灾害——摧毁城市田野、残害生命、改变环境特性, 亦造成新的陆地, 提供新的物产与能源。关注监测典型区火山动态, 预警预报防灾, 研究与总结火山活动规律, 趋利避害十分重要。
Abstract:Volcanic and earthquake activities have been intensified all over the world since late 1990 s.Strong earthquakes are always accompanied by volcanic eruption that may cause severe damages and disasters.To make summarization of observed volcanic geomorphology and to learn lessons from it will certainly help people preventing volcanic disasters.Observed volcanos can be classified into three groups:1.Extinct Volcanoes.Take the volcanoes of the Datong Basin, Shanxi Province, China for examples, there are low volcanic cones distributed on the basin plain among mountains.The volcanic cones usually consist of naked basalt hills with craters on top.They were mainly erupted during middle to late Pleistocene, and became extinct 90 thousand year BP.It is a kind of inland volcanic eruption constrained by fault zones.Another example is the tableshaped hills of same age, called"Fangshan"by the local people, distributed in the lower reach plain of the Changjiang River surrounding the city of Nanjing, where basalt rocks occur on the top of Cretaceous sandstone.Further to the south of China, Cenozoic volcanoes are found along the subsidence zones of the Qiongzhou Strait and the Beibu Gulf along the northern side of Hainan Island, China.They erupted during 16.77±0.47 Ma, lasted to13000 aBP, and formed a lot of low hills with craters on top.2.Dormant Volcanoes.It is a transitional type of volcanoes between the active and extinct ones.In practice, it is always hard to define.A typical example is the Mt.Kilimanjaro, located along the marginal zone, 160 km away from theeast of the East African Rift.A group of volcanoes extended for 80 km in distance from east to west with multiple craters.The last eruption happened (15~20) ×104 aBP.Most of the volcanoes are extinct except the Peak of Kibo, which still releases vapor and SO2 gas.The Mount Fuji in Japan is also a famous volcano.It started eruption in early Quaternary, and became strong in the period of 11000 to8000 aBP, with a newest eruption in1707 AD.A4 cm thick layer of volcanic ashes is widely distributed in the Tokyo area which is 100 km away from Fuji.There were 5 times of eruption during late Pleistocene to middle Holocene on the northwest coast of Hainan Island.Eruption migrated gradually from the coast to the Beibu Gulf of South China Sea, and weakened in scale.The Weizhou Island located in the Beibu Gulf is in fact a group of submerged volcanic craters, consisting of basalt and volcanic debris erupted 1.42~0.49 MaBP, and 36~33 kaBP respectively, and finally submerged under the sea 7000 aBP.3.Active Volcanoes.1) The Sakurajima of Japan.The volcano started eruption annually3000 aBP.There are over 400 times of eruption annually since 1955.The deposited volcanic debris may reach several meters thick, and many houses and huge areas of farm land are buried under the ash.Geo-disaster of mudflow may cause severe damage during heavy raining season.2) The Tianchi volcano of the Changbai Mountain in China.Records indicate that a large eruption happened 1000 years ago.Up present there still erupts SO2.3) Datun Volcano of Taiwan Island, China.The volcano started eruption 280×104 aBP.as a result of the collision between the North Luzon Arc and the Eurasian continent.The volcano ceased eruption 20×104 aBP, but still active with SO2 gas and steam escape today.4) Mount Vesuvius in Italy.It was formed25000 aBP as a volcano.A serious disaster happened in79 AD The cities of Pompeii and Stabiae were buried by thick volcanic dusts.The eruption has continued up to present, and stopped sometimes which may last for 18 months or even7 years.An observation laboratory was set up on the half way of the main peak about 678 m above the sea level to collect the data of volcanic eruption, earthquake and gravity variation.5) Located along the Pacific coast, the St.Helens Volcano, after 123 years dormancy, erupted strongly on 27, March and continued until September of 1980.A huge new crater was formed on hilly mounts, and lava flows destroyed large areas of forests, farm land, villages and even people's life!Moreover, the Mauna Loa volcano of the Hawaii Islands, 4170 m above sea level with multiple craters, and the Kilauea volcano, 1222 m high and4027 m in diameter continues to erupt lava and steam.It is famous as a natural laboratory for people to learn the processes of volcanism.6) Volcanos on the mid-ocean ridges.In Iceland, volcanic processes offer enormous geothermal energy to benefit people there.Almost half of volcanos are located under lakes or modern glacial, forming an unusual environmental nature.To summarize, we may reach the following conclusions:1.Volcanic eruption, happened along the weak parts of thinner earth crust's fracture zone, provide channels to releases energy from lower mantle.As a result, it not only changes environment natures, and brings about severe disasters, but also provide a way to avoid long time energy accumulation and collapse of large area of crust.2.Volcanic eruptions are usually regional in nature. ①.At present, lavas erupt along the mid-ocean rift to produce or expand basalt islands, such as those discovered in Iceland. ②.Volcanic eruption often happens along plate margin or adjacent areas, for examples, the West Pacific marginal seas, and edges of the Arctic plate, the Eurasian continent, and Antarctic oceanic plates.In these areas, eruption is characterized by long period of lava flow, strong debris dropping and earthquake activities. ③.Hot spot under plate is active for volcanic eruption.While the plate moving away, new volcano will continuously form upon the hot spots.As the results, a series of islands will form, such as the case of Hawaii Islands.3.Volcanic eruption is major process to create land, and even continent.4.Volcanic eruption has a nature of migration from continental margin towards mid-ocean ridge except for hot spots.5.Monitoring the active volcanism is critical important for better understanding the deep process of the earth in particular in the areas of the mid-ocean ridges, continental margins, plate boundaries and Arctic and Antarctic Oceans.
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表 1 大同主要火山高度特征[4]
Table 1. Elevation of the major volcanos in Datong
火山名称 山顶海拔/m 相对尚度/m 火山口直径/m 黑山 1431.00 211.00 320 艾家凹 1367.90 177.50 200 狼窝山 1335.10 140.10 530 闲老山 1276.10 106.10 350 马蹄山 1233.45 105.15 250 东山 1199.00 119.00 150 吳天寺 1145.80 105.80 100 老虎山 1210.40 50.40 双山 1179.00 20.00 马蹄山东北小火山 (1) 1195.30 25.30 (2) 1206.10 36.10 (3) 1178.00 7.50 (4) 1165.30 10.00 (5) 1171.10 12.50 (6) 1169.10 5.00 浪窝山东阐坡寄生火山-小山 1215.00 30.00 拟窝山东北坡寄生火山 1260.00 15.00 黑山南坡寄生火山 1305.00 15.00 南山东坡寄生火山 1305.00 10.00 
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表 2 海南岛西北岸火山活动与地质地貌特征[18]
Table 2. Volcanic activities and geological and geomorphological features in northwest coast of Hainan Island
喷发期次 时代 岩石特征 分布与地貌特征 第1期 第1次 晚更新世玄武岩烘烤层热释光定年为52000±40aBP 气孔状玄武岩层厚5~10m.经鉴定为橄榄玄武岩及橄榄拉斑玄武岩 洋浦, 沿NEE向断裂多中心溢流喷发, 形成火山区的玄武岩台地和丘陵.向海盖在海相沉积层上.火山弹与火山碎屑堆积易侵蚀成低地.岩流形成8m高海岸阶地, 有多个喷发孔.使地面起伏为火山丘陵 第2次 气孔状橄揽玄武岩、橄榄玻基玄武岩.岩屑玄武岩、层凝灰岩 峨蔓为屮心, 沿NW向断裂成多火口喷发.喷发剧烈.形成20~40m崎岖不平熔岩低丘, 沿断裂带成一系列火山锥.笔架山三峰高度为208, 121, 171m, 春历岭100~167m.火山锥兀立于第一期玄武岩台地上 第3次 橄榄玄武岩 千冲断裂北侧及德义岭，成盾形火山及熔岩台地.穿插、覆盖在第二玄武耑上, 德义岭火山高97.4m.火山口完整, 直径200m 第4次 火山岩覆盖在海岸潮滩沉积层上, 其中的扇贝14C定年为26100±960aBP，喷发时代在更新世末 多孔的熔岩、拉斑玄武岩、玻屑凝灰岩、玻璃火山碎屑岩及海水具微层理与波痕结构的凝灰质砂砾岩 莲花山及德义岭以北, 龙门以南.喷发强烈.粘滞性大, 火山锥兀立.坡度大.穿插于熔岩台地(第三次)间, 莲花山有一中心火山喷发口，高65.0m, 四周有几个火山喷发孔 第2期 第5次 经热释光定年为4000±300aBP 炉渣状熔岩、气孔状玄武岩、拉斑玄武岩 母鸡神、龙门、沿海岸断裂带, 成串珠状小火山喷发.孔裂隙式喷发，全新世沉积受火山活动而抬升构成现代火山海岸
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表 3 涠洲岛火山岩年代测定
Table 3. Dating of volcanic rock on Weizhou Island
地点 岩性 测年方法 测得年龄 数据来源 石螺村潮间带 球状风化玄武岩 K-Ar 1.42±0.12Ma 樊祺诚等.2006[20] 涠洲岛东岸 碱性橄榄玄武岩 K-Ar 1.26±0.26Ma 冯国荣，1992[13] 鳄鱼嘴 熔岩角砾 K-Ar 0.86±0.07Ma 樊祺诚等.2006[20] 横路山锅盖岭 球状风化玄武岩 K-Ar 0.79±0.05Ma 樊祺诚等.2006[20] 北港 球状风化玄武岩 K-Ar 0.75 ±0.04 _Ma 樊祺诚等, 2006[20] 横路山锅盖岭 火山碎屑岩 K-Ar 0.60±0.02.Ma 樊褀诚等.2006[20] 航际塔 早期玄武岩捕虏体 K-Ar 0.59±0.05.Ma 樊祺诚等.2006[20] 西角村 球状风化玄武岩 K-Ar 0.58±0.03.Ma 樊祺诚等.2006[20] 斜阳村 球状风化玄武岩 K-Ar 0.57±0.05Ma 樊褀诚等.2006[20] 涠洲岛横岭北 球状风化玄武岩 K-Ar 0.49±0.03Ma 樊褀诚等.2006[20] 斜阳岛东码头 贝壳 AMS14C 36135±185a(距1950年) 樊祺诚等.2006[20]
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