The outward growth of the arcuate tectonic belt in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau: Insights from three-dimensional finite element numerical simulations
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摘要:
青藏高原东北缘弧形构造带是青藏高原侧向生长的独特边界，以垂直于高原扩展方向的盆−山相间的弧形地貌为特征，代表了青藏高原扩展的独特生长方式。此次研究旨在运用三维有限元黏−塑性大变形数值模拟方法再现青藏高原东北缘弧形构造带的形成和演化过程，提出弧形构造生长的新构造样式和变形机制。此次模拟基于大量地质与地球物理资料，测试了银川盆地阻挡和弱的下地壳对弧形构造带内断裂发育的控制作用。结果表明，在青藏高原向东北扩展的过程中，地壳缩短增厚变形由高原向东北传播，受北东—南西向挤压作用，地块围限的中—新生代盆地区（弧形构造带）的深部物质向东北迁移，在受到刚性的鄂尔多斯地块和阿拉善地块阻挡后，向强度相对较弱的银川盆地有限挤入。银川盆地的阻挡是弧形构造带断裂在浅部地壳形成和发育的重要条件。黏度为2.5×1022 Pa·s 、黏聚力为2 MPa的弱下地壳对弧形构造带内断裂发育有促进作用，但不是断裂形成的必要条件。进一步分析青藏高原东北缘弧形构造带地表和3条剖面最大剪应变率分布特征及其随时间演化的规律发现，弧形构造带在深部总体上表现为“对冲”构造样式，指示深−浅变形机制存在解耦现象。弧形构造带的变形解耦深度在20 km和40 km发生，形成了3个构造层。其中的中—上地壳构造层以逆冲−褶皱构造变形方式调节地壳水平缩短和垂向增厚；而弱的下地壳作为弧形构造发育的滑脱层，以韧−塑性变形方式调节地壳水平缩短和垂向增厚；岩石圈地幔由于莫霍面的调节作用，也存在一定程度的缩短增厚。综合分析认为，青藏高原东北缘弧形构造带是在先存断裂和拆离带的控制下，主控断裂在9.5~2.5 Ma同步发育，并向深部扩展，最终切入中—下地壳。新的模拟研究结果为深化对青藏高原东北缘隆升和横向生长过程的认识提供了参考。
Abstract:Objective The arcuate tectonic belt in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau is a unique boundary for the lateral growth of the Tibetan Plateau. Characterized by an arcuate geomorphology with alternating basins and mountains perpendicular to the direction of plateau expansion, it represents a unique growth mode of the Tibetan Plateau. This study aims to reproduce the formation and evolution process of the arcuate tectonic belt in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau using three-dimensional finite element visco-plastic large deformation numerical simulation. It also proposes a new structural pattern and deformation mechanism for the outward growth of the arcuate tectonic belt.
Methods Three tests based on a large amount of geological and geophysical data were conducted to investigate how the barrier of the Yinchuan Basin and the weak lower crust control the development of faults within the arcuate tectonic belt.
Results The results show that, as the Tibetan Plateau expanded northeastward, the shortening and thickening of the crust propagated from the plateau to the northeast. Under NE–SW compression, the deep-seated materials in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic basins (arcuate tectonic belts), which were confined by blocks, migrated northeastward. After being blocked by the rigid Ordos and Alxa blocks, these materials were squeezed into the relatively weak Yinchuan Basin to a limited extent. The obstruction by the Yinchuan Basin is an important condition for the formation and development of the faults within the shallow crust of the arcuate tectonic belt. A weak lower crust with a viscosity of 2.5×1022 Pa·s and a cohesion of 2 MPa promotes fault development within the arcuate tectonic belt, but it is not a necessary prerequisite for fault formation. This paper analyzes the distribution of the maximum shear strain rate on the surface and along three sections of the arcuate tectonic belt as well as the evolution of these characteristics over time. It is proposed that the arcuate tectonic belt generally exhibits a "ramp-thrusting" structural pattern in the deeper sections, and the deformation mechanism is characterized by deep–shallow decoupling. The deformation of the lithosphere within the arcuate tectonic belt decoupled at depths of 20 km and 40 km, forming three tectonic layers. The middle–upper crust is dominated by thrust and fold structures, regulating the horizontal shortening and vertical thickening of the crust; the weak lower crust completes the horizontal shortening and vertical thickening of the crust through ductile–plastic deformation and serves as a detachment layer for the development of arcuate structures; the lithospheric mantle, due to the regulating effect of the Moho surface, underwent limited shortening and thickening.
Conclusion Under the control of the preexisting fault zones in the southern and northern margins and the detachment zones, the main arcuate faults developed synchronously during the period of 9.5–2.5 Ma. Then, they extended in depth and finally cut into the middle crust. [Significance] This study deepens the understanding of the uplift and lateral growth of the Tibetan Plateau, and provides a reference for the study of the deep–shallow processes involved in arcuate structure formation.
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图 4 青藏高原东北部及邻区有效黏度等值线图以及主要断裂带（据Sun et al.，2025修改；其中岩石圈结构的有效黏度根据CRUST1.0模型，
http://igppweb.ucsd.edu/~gabi/rem.html ；断裂带图例及编号参考图2）Figure 4.
表 1 青藏高原东北缘弧形断裂带构造演化
Table 1. Tectonic evolution of the arcuate fault zones in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau
断裂带及其名称 启动年龄/Ma 最大水平挤压应力方向 断层机制 现今走滑速率/（mm/a） 海原断裂带（F1） ~9.5（Shi et al.，2015） NE—SW
（Shi et al.，2015）逆冲 （Shi et al.，2015） 1~6
（Chen et al.，2023）5.4（王伟涛等，2013；雷启云等，2016；
Chen et al.，2023）ENE—WSW
（Shi et al.，2015）逆冲兼左旋走滑（Shi et al.，2015；
雷启云等，2016）2.7（王伟涛等，2013；雷启云等，2016；
Chen et al.，2023）左旋走滑（西段）； 逆冲兼左旋走滑
（东段）（Shi et al.，2015；雷启云等，2016）香山−天景山
断裂带（F2）5.4（王伟涛等，2013；雷启云等，2016；
Chen et al.，2023）NE—SW
（Shi et al.，2015）逆冲兼左旋走滑（Shi et al.，2015；
雷启云等，2016）2.3~2.9
（Chen et al.，2023）~2.7（王伟涛等，2013；雷启云等，2016；
Chen et al.，2023）ENE—WSW
（Shi et al.，2015）正-左旋走滑（西段） ；逆冲兼左旋走滑
（东段）（Shi et al.，2015；雷启云等，2016）烟筒山断裂带（F3） 5.4 （董晓朋等，2020）或 ~2.7（王伟涛等，2013；
雷启云等，2016；Chen et al.，2023）NE—SW 或
ENE—WSW
（Shi et al.，2015）逆冲兼左旋走滑（雷启云等，2016） 尚未测定 牛首山−罗山
断裂带（F4）~2.5（Chen et al.，2015） NW—SE
（Chen et al.，2015）逆冲兼左旋走滑（陈虹等，2013） 0.35（Chen et al.，2023） 0.15（Chen et al.，2015） NNE—SSW
（Chen et al.，2015）右旋走滑（陈虹等，2013） 注：烟筒山断裂带（F3）的启动年龄尚未被精准测定，估算得出。 
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表 2 模型参数
Table 2. Model Parameters
地块 分层 Case-1 Case-2 Case-3 $ {\eta }_{{\mathrm{eff}}} $ / Pa·sC/MPa $ {\eta }_{{\mathrm{eff}}} $ /（Pa·s）C/MPa $ {\eta }_{{\mathrm{eff}}} $ /（Pa·s）C/MPa 鄂尔多斯地块和阿拉善地块 上地壳 1 × 1023 3× 105 1 × 1023 3× 105 1 × 1023 3× 105 中地壳 下地壳 岩石圈地幔 银川盆地 上地壳 2.5 × 1022 5 2.5 × 1022 3 × 103 2.5 × 1022 3 × 103 中地壳 下地壳 岩石圈地幔 50 弧形构造带 上地壳 2.5 × 1022 5 2.5 × 1022 5 2.5 × 1022 5 中地壳 下地壳 2 岩石圈地幔 50 50 50 陇中地块 上地壳 2.5 × 1022 20 2.5 × 1022 20 2.5 × 1022 20 中地壳 下地壳 2 岩石圈地幔 50 50 50 注：上地壳密度为2700 kg/m3，中地壳密度为2800 kg/m3，下地壳密度为3000 kg/m3，岩石圈地幔密度为3300 kg/m3
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